1. Introduction
Transportation has been a cornerstone of societal development since ancient times, beginning with simple human-powered methods and evolving considerably over the centuries. From the invention of wheels to modern transportation technologies, humans continuously innovate to improve mobility and connectivity. Despite the array of transport modes available presently, many prefer motorised vehicles because of their convenience and efficiency.
However, reliance on motorised transport has steep environmental repercussions because they contribute significantly to greenhouse gas emissions that adversely affect the climate, degrade air and water quality, increase noise pollution, and threaten natural habitats and biodiversity. Globally, motorised transport accounts for almost one-fourth of all carbon dioxide emissions, underscoring its substantial environmental repercussions.
In response to these challenges, there is a growing push to develop and adopt sustainable transportation alternatives that minimise environmental damages while promoting equitable mobility. The concepts of Smart Cities and the Internet of Things (IoT) have gained traction among industries, policymakers and researchers because they focus on revolutionising transportation systems. These technologies leverage intelligent transport systems and intelligent mobility solutions to minimise carbon footprints and enhance the efficiency of urban transportation networks. Sustainable transportation strategies prioritise maintaining the economic vitality of regions while preserving natural resources for future generations. In its simplest definition, sustainable transport provides efficient movement while ensuring future populations can fulfil their mobility needs.
Electric bicycles, or e-bikes, are emerging as a promising solution for sustainable transportation. E-bikes combine traditional pedalling with the electrical assistance activated during pedalling to reduce physical effort. This feature makes e-bikes a unique alternative to conventional bicycles since they provide an energy-efficient option for commuting over longer distances or on challenging terrains. Although e-bikes have slightly more environmental impact and demand less physical effort than traditional bicycles, their ecological footprint remains far less than that of cars and other motorised vehicles. Moreover, the pedalling required to operate an e-bike qualifies as a moderate-intensity physical activity that provides notable health benefits.
The popularity of e-bikes has surged in recent years, particularly in the European Union, where sales increased tenfold from 2009 to 2021, reaching a remarkable 5.1 million units. This trend highlights the growing recognition of e-bikes as an efficient, sustainable and healthy transportation mode. As society continues to seek solutions for sustainable urban mobility, e-bikes represent a critical step toward reducing the environmental impact of daily commutes while promoting a healthier lifestyle.
2. The Impacts of E-Bikes on Sustainability and Well-Being
E-bikes integrate traditional bicycle mechanics with advanced components, including an electric motor, battery and control system to enhance the riding experience. The battery powers the motor, which activates when the rider pedals or engages a throttle, to provide a smoother ride with less physically demanding effort. This feature is helpful when navigating steep inclines and uneven terrain or enduring extended rides. Therefore, e-bikes are excellent for individuals seeking a convenient and efficient solution when commuting long distances or recreational cycling because they combine practicality with minimal effort.
2.1 Environmental impact
E-bikes are an exceptionally sustainable and eco-friendly transportation mode with substantial benefits in reducing energy consumption and harmful emissions compared to conventional vehicles. Studies on life cycle assessments in China found that e-bikes consume approximately 90% less energy and emit 86–95% fewer pollutants than private automobiles. Their much lower carbon dioxide output, between 60–93% lower than the emissions by private cars, makes them comparable with public transport regarding environmental efficiency. Furthermore, the superior ability of e-bikes to curb PM2.5 emissions is a crucial factor in addressing urban air pollution challenges.
E-bikes are remarkably effective in combating climate change since they are 10 to 30 times more efficient than electric cars. They can cover distances 30 to 100 times greater per battery unit than electric vehicles, thus consolidating their position as an ideal choice for environmentally conscious urban transportation. Even with California’s relatively clean energy grid, e-bikes emit 40 to 140 times fewer greenhouse gases than petrol-powered cars, with a fuel efficiency of 30 miles per gallon.
Another benefit of e-bikes is their quiet operation, which contrasts sharply with the noise pollution associated with motorised vehicles. This feature makes e-bikes instrumental in promoting more peaceful and liveable cities, especially in densely populated areas where excessive noise can adversely affect health and quality of life. Incorporating e-bikes into urban transportation plans can boost sustainability while ensuring quieter, healthier environments that promote residents’ well-being. This shift holds transformative potential for improving urban living and nurturing more sustainable, harmonious communities.
2.2 Health Benefits
Electric bicycles (e-bikes) offer a unique combination of convenience, physical activity and significant health benefits, making them a compelling alternative to conventional transportation methods. Despite their motorised assistance, e-bikes retain pedalling as a fundamental part of their operation, thus encouraging users to engage in regular physical activity. Although the required physical effort may not be as intense as for traditional bicycles, there are still notable benefits to riding e-bikes, including better cardiovascular health, improved muscle tone and enhanced general fitness level. Furthermore, e-bikes are particularly beneficial for individuals who may struggle with riding standard bicycles, such as older adults and those recovering from injuries or with limited fitness levels. E-bikes are a practical and inclusive way to incorporate exercise into daily routines, thus enhancing overall health and well-being.
The global issue of physical inactivity has prompted extensive research into active travel as a means to improve public health. In particular, there is an association between active commuting and numerous health benefits, such as lower Body Mass Index (BMI) and lower risk of diabetes. Longitudinal studies emphasised that incorporating cycling into daily commutes can reduce all-cause mortality rates, cancer incidence, and cardiovascular disease mortality. These health benefits are most pronounced in individuals with previously low physical activity levels. For instance, research demonstrated that active commuting can add approximately 73 minutes of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity per week for men and 105 minutes for women with type 2 diabetes compared to those using motorised transportation.
E-bikes, particularly electrically-assisted bicycles, reduce the typical hindrances to traditional cycling, such as physical exertion and distance. There are two primary variants of e-bikes: throttle-controlled bikes that require no pedalling and electrically-assisted bicycles that provide motorised support only during pedalling. The latter is activated by sensors that detect pedalling speed and force; they promote physical activity while maintaining ease of use. Electrically-assisted bicycles have lower motor power and speed limits; they are legally classed as bicycles, thus distinguishing them from the throttle-controlled models. In this paper, e-bike refers exclusively to electrically-assisted bicycles, which balance between promoting fitness and offering convenience, making them an effective tool for maintaining an active and healthy lifestyle.
A study on e-bike usage in Australia uncovered significant physical and mental health benefits for its users. Notably, e-bike riders reported considerable improvements in their mental well-being, such as increased happiness, deeper social connection and stronger connection with nature. E-bike riding fostered a heightened sense of well-being and better motivation across other areas of life, suggesting that the benefits of e-biking extend beyond physical health. Regarding the physical benefits, participants felt more fit, with higher muscular strength and energy levels; some even reported weight loss from the increased physical activity of regular e-bike riding.
The motorised assistance provided by e-bikes proved to be crucial in making cycling more accessible and encouraging broader participation in cycling activities. This feature was particularly beneficial for individuals who felt that traditional bicycles were too demanding physically. Furthermore, the positive experiences from riding e-bikes motivated the users to advocate for and encourage others to adopt this alternative transportation mode. Their advocacy amplified the societal impact of e-bikes, suggesting that they could be critical in transforming urban mobility and contributing to healthier communities in general.
2.3 Safety Concerns
All forms of transportation have inherent risks when navigating roadways, even in areas with suitable cycling infrastructure. Despite the various safety measures and precautions, accidents and unforeseen hazards remain an unavoidable reality to some degree. However, unlike motorised vehicles, e-bikes are often perceived as a safer alternative in many circumstances. This perception is primarily due to the lower operating speeds of e-bikes, which significantly reduce the severity of potential collisions, and their superior manoeuvrability, which allows e-bike riders to navigate the traffic and around obstacles more effectively, thus minimising the likelihood of accidents. Moreover, e-bike riders often use dedicated bike lanes that separate them from the flow of faster, heavier motorised vehicles, reduce the risks of accidents, and provide safer riding conditions.
Comparison of the safety of e-bikes and motorised vehicles is not straightforward because it depends on various fundamental factors, including road condition and design, the availability and quality of dedicated cycling infrastructure, rider behaviour and experience and adherence to traffic laws and safety regulations. External factors such as traffic volume, weather conditions and visibility are critical factors affecting the safety of all transportation modes. A thorough evaluation of these factors can provide better insight into the safety of e-bikes as a sustainable and practical transportation option that will maximise their potential to improve urban mobility and safety.
3. Conclusions
Electric bicycles can effectively solve some pressing transportation challenges, including environmental sustainability, public health and the need for more sustainable urban mobility. As an environmentally friendly alternative to traditional motor vehicles, e-bikes consume significantly less energy, release fewer emissions, and do not cause noise pollution. They are an excellent choice for advancing intelligent and more sustainable communities because they release minimal greenhouse gases and help fight climate change.
E-bikes provide a unique blend of practicality and health benefits by incorporating physical activity into an eco-conscious transportation mode. They offer users the chance to enhance cardiovascular health, build muscle strength and improve overall fitness while minimising the required physical effort compared to traditional cycling, thus making them especially beneficial for individuals with limited fitness levels or those recovering from injuries.
Moreover, research has demonstrated that, besides their positive influence on mental health, e-bike riders often have a stronger connection with nature and participate in social engagement. Generally, their lower speed makes e-bikes easy to manoeuvre and safer than motorised vehicles. While all forms of transportation have safety risks, e-bikes can travel on designated bike lanes, which helps protect riders from the dangers of faster-moving motor vehicles. Nevertheless, the overall safety of e-bike users also depends on factors such as road conditions, quality of cycling infrastructure and rider behaviour. In conclusion, e-bikes are a transformative and practical transportation option capable of reducing environmental impact, enhancing public health and promoting safer, more sustainable urban mobility. Cities that embrace this technology can move closer towards achieving their sustainability objectives and fostering healthier, more interconnected communities.
Authors:
Yushafika Roshaini Binti Yuzaile, Postgraduate Student, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Selangor.
Dr. Ahmad Yusri Mohamad, Senior Lecturer, Politeknik Sultan Haji Ahmad Shah (POLISAS), Pahang.
Assoc. Prof. Ir. Dr. Nur Izzi Md Yusoff, Senior Lecturer, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Selangor.
